Physics
Hydrogen orbitals
Three-dimensional |ψ|²: orbital shapes and nodal surfaces.
What happens
The hydrogen atom's electron drawn as it really is: a three-dimensional probability cloud |ψ|², from the round 1s ball through the dumbbells of p states to the intricate petals of d and f. Nodal surfaces, where the electron is never found, slice the shapes; the chart shows how far from the nucleus it likes to live.
Equations used in the module
Equations ψ_nlm = R_nl(r) Y_lm(θ, φ), E_n = −13.6 eV / n² nodes: n − l − 1 radial, l angular P(r) ∝ r² |R_nl|²
